Libido is the instinctual energy that belongs to the sexual drive. Discharge of this energy leads to pleasure. The part of the body that leads to such pleasure is called erogenous zone. The concept of erogenous zone is some more elaborated by Erikson (1963). He classified them to oral-sensory – facial apertures and upper nutritional organs, anal – excretory organs and genitalia – the genitals. Orality is a method of relating to external world (Erikson, 1963). The first mode of approach in the oral zone is incorporation-to take in, in an independent fashion, what is offered by the mother (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007).
According to Erikson (1963), functions in each zone included incorporation, retention, elimination, and intrusion. During the oral stage, Incorporation is clamping down with jaws and gums; elimination is spitting up and out; retention is closing up of lips and intrusion the tendency of the infant to fasten itself upon the nipple. Fixation during oral stages will lead the individuals to be orally dependent. The characteristics of orally dependent clients are extreme dependence to the oral elements in adult functioning and they tend to relate the world in terms of a need to be nurtured. They crave for dependency in their adulthood just as a child shows its need to be nurtured. All the above said functions will be redone by such individuals even in the adulthood. Erikson saw primary conflict at this level as one of developing the sense of basic trust vs. mistrust.
Anal stage begins with the acquisition of the control of anal sphincter by the child. The child learns to control the muscle system (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). The duality which has been seen during this period is rigidity vs. relaxation, flexion vs. extension. The child during this period delineates his world as I, you, me and mine. General actions will be reaching out, holding on, throw/push away – to appropriate things/to keep them in distance. They are able to make a decision and to carry over that decision. Erikson saw primary conflict at this level as autonomy vs. shame and doubt – therefore the process of letting go and holding down. According to Freud, fixations my stem out from these conflicts lead to two sets of anal traits – anal retentive and anal expulsive traits. Anal retentive traits involve excessive use of self-control. They include perfectionism, a strong need for order, and exaggerated neatness and cleanliness. Anal-expulsive traits, on the other hand, “let it all hang out”. They include carelessness, messiness and even sadism (Rathus, 1996).
During phallic stage, the child will be moved from a 2 person interaction – Mother-child interaction – to a triangular relationship – mother-child-father. The child will wish to possess or to be possessed by the parents of the opposite sex. This creates a conflict with the thought of the parent of same sex. Here incestuous feelings are combined with patricidal impulses. The boy wishes to possess his mother. The boy fears father’s revenge of castration – castration anxiety. The girl wishes to be possessed by her father. The girl feels jealous of the penis: penis envy. This complex is necessary for later development. The threat of castration leads the child to internalize. Here super-ego starts to develop.
Post Freudian psychoanalysis involves a variety of technique. One of them is based on the object relations theory. According to object relations theory, object seeking is the nature of motivation. Post Freudians did not discard drive theory (of Freud), but contributed to it the significance of interaction with important others in the formation of personality. Some of the most popular Post Freudian contributors are Melain Klein, Donald Winnicott and Heinz Kohut. Among these Kohut (1977) developed the theory called self psychology. Self psychology suggests that self is an organized construct of experience (not innate drives and instincts).
Overall, Post-Freudian theorists expanded psychoanalysis theory from Freud’s one person system to a two person system. They, more than considering an individual as a closed system, the scope widened to include another person (the analyst). According to Freud, psychoanalytic treatment is similar to what a surgeon do. Just as a surgeon removes a tumor, a psychoanalyst removes the repressed memory from the unconscious. Freud conceived the analyst as a mirror (non-reactive, non-contributory), which reflects back the unconscious desires and fears emanating from the client. On the other hand, object relation psychoanalysts suggests this relationship as just like that of a mother and a child. By the entry of Neo-Freudians, there occurred a paradigm shift in psychoanalysis (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). Terms such as inter-subjectivity theory, relational theorizing and social constructivism indicates this shift is from the positivistic belief that there are ultimate truths to be found within the intra-psychic structure of the individual (Robin, 1995).
According to Freud, an analyst is an archeologist shifting through strange symbols (dreams, slips of the tongue, symptoms). He will decipher meanings and present them to the client via an interpretation. But, for the neo-Freudians, the role of an analyst is different. In their opinion, the analyst and patient together create or construct what is clinically useful (Robin, 1995). This shift has influenced even the concept of counter transference (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). Freud viewed counter transference as a reaction that contaminates therapy. According to Freud, it is a function of unrecognized neurotic conflicts within the analyst.
The system of psychoanalytic theory rests on meta-psychology (Rapaport & Gill, 1959). To comprehend a psychic event thoroughly, it is necessary to analyze it from six different points of view.
1) The topographic
2) The dynamic
3) The economic
4) The genetic
5) The structural
6) The adaptive
Topographic point of view: Contrasts unconscious and conscious mental processes. The unconscious part is the deeper layer. Its sole aim is to discharge impulses. Analysis of dream is done to verify the assumptions about the latent or unconscious meaning of the symbol or the dream itself. To interpret the meaning of dream without these associations would be to impose our own thoughts onto the client – a process derogatorily called wild analysis.
The analyst will always check the possible associations to illustrate metapsychological point of view.
The dynamic point of view: suggests the tension-discharge hypothesis. It assumes that mental phenomena are the result of the interaction of psychic forces seeking discharge (similar to hydraulic systems in physics during Freud’s time). The tension-discharge hypothesis is the base of all the other assumptions, concerning instinctual drives, defenses, ego interests and conflicts.
The economic point of view: is closely related to the dynamic point of view. These two points have close connection with Freud’s idea of the psycho-economic hypothesis (Capuzzi & Gross, 2007). This hypothesis requires a construct of psychic energy, with principles of pleasure-pain and constancy. For Freud, the development of instincts necessitated conflict. When two primary instincts of sexual and aggressive drives strive toward expression, they clash with the reality principle, which leads to states of pent-up tension.
The two principles which base the concept of psychic energy are pleasure-pain principle and constancy. Principle of constancy states that the function of nervous system and the psychic apparatus is to keep the level of excitation at its lowest point. The pleasure principle is related to constancy principle. It assents the lowering level of excitation, which connotes release and relief, leads to pleasure, whereas increased excitation creates tension and description and is experienced as pain.
Genetic point of view: thinks about the origin and development of a particular psychic phenomenon. It explains how the past is being brought to the present and why a certain compromise solution has been adopted.
Structural point of view: divides the psychic apparatus into different persisting functional units – ego, id, & superego.
Adaptation point of view: thinks about the attempts done by the individual to adapt with a challenging situation. It checks about the environmental influences such as love, hate, society etc.
Goals of counseling:
Psycho analysis emphasizes,
1. Resolution of client’s problem to enhance the client’s ability to cope with life changes
2. Their working through unresolved developmental stages.
3. Their ability to cope more effectively with the demands of the society. However goals change with the client and with the psycho-analytic approach (drive theory, ego psychology, object relations, self psychology).
According to Erikson (1963), functions in each zone included incorporation, retention, elimination, and intrusion. During the oral stage, Incorporation is clamping down with jaws and gums; elimination is spitting up and out; retention is closing up of lips and intrusion the tendency of the infant to fasten itself upon the nipple. Fixation during oral stages will lead the individuals to be orally dependent. The characteristics of orally dependent clients are extreme dependence to the oral elements in adult functioning and they tend to relate the world in terms of a need to be nurtured. They crave for dependency in their adulthood just as a child shows its need to be nurtured. All the above said functions will be redone by such individuals even in the adulthood. Erikson saw primary conflict at this level as one of developing the sense of basic trust vs. mistrust.
Anal stage begins with the acquisition of the control of anal sphincter by the child. The child learns to control the muscle system (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). The duality which has been seen during this period is rigidity vs. relaxation, flexion vs. extension. The child during this period delineates his world as I, you, me and mine. General actions will be reaching out, holding on, throw/push away – to appropriate things/to keep them in distance. They are able to make a decision and to carry over that decision. Erikson saw primary conflict at this level as autonomy vs. shame and doubt – therefore the process of letting go and holding down. According to Freud, fixations my stem out from these conflicts lead to two sets of anal traits – anal retentive and anal expulsive traits. Anal retentive traits involve excessive use of self-control. They include perfectionism, a strong need for order, and exaggerated neatness and cleanliness. Anal-expulsive traits, on the other hand, “let it all hang out”. They include carelessness, messiness and even sadism (Rathus, 1996).
During phallic stage, the child will be moved from a 2 person interaction – Mother-child interaction – to a triangular relationship – mother-child-father. The child will wish to possess or to be possessed by the parents of the opposite sex. This creates a conflict with the thought of the parent of same sex. Here incestuous feelings are combined with patricidal impulses. The boy wishes to possess his mother. The boy fears father’s revenge of castration – castration anxiety. The girl wishes to be possessed by her father. The girl feels jealous of the penis: penis envy. This complex is necessary for later development. The threat of castration leads the child to internalize. Here super-ego starts to develop.
Post Freudian psychoanalysis involves a variety of technique. One of them is based on the object relations theory. According to object relations theory, object seeking is the nature of motivation. Post Freudians did not discard drive theory (of Freud), but contributed to it the significance of interaction with important others in the formation of personality. Some of the most popular Post Freudian contributors are Melain Klein, Donald Winnicott and Heinz Kohut. Among these Kohut (1977) developed the theory called self psychology. Self psychology suggests that self is an organized construct of experience (not innate drives and instincts).
Overall, Post-Freudian theorists expanded psychoanalysis theory from Freud’s one person system to a two person system. They, more than considering an individual as a closed system, the scope widened to include another person (the analyst). According to Freud, psychoanalytic treatment is similar to what a surgeon do. Just as a surgeon removes a tumor, a psychoanalyst removes the repressed memory from the unconscious. Freud conceived the analyst as a mirror (non-reactive, non-contributory), which reflects back the unconscious desires and fears emanating from the client. On the other hand, object relation psychoanalysts suggests this relationship as just like that of a mother and a child. By the entry of Neo-Freudians, there occurred a paradigm shift in psychoanalysis (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). Terms such as inter-subjectivity theory, relational theorizing and social constructivism indicates this shift is from the positivistic belief that there are ultimate truths to be found within the intra-psychic structure of the individual (Robin, 1995).
According to Freud, an analyst is an archeologist shifting through strange symbols (dreams, slips of the tongue, symptoms). He will decipher meanings and present them to the client via an interpretation. But, for the neo-Freudians, the role of an analyst is different. In their opinion, the analyst and patient together create or construct what is clinically useful (Robin, 1995). This shift has influenced even the concept of counter transference (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). Freud viewed counter transference as a reaction that contaminates therapy. According to Freud, it is a function of unrecognized neurotic conflicts within the analyst.
The system of psychoanalytic theory rests on meta-psychology (Rapaport & Gill, 1959). To comprehend a psychic event thoroughly, it is necessary to analyze it from six different points of view.
1) The topographic
2) The dynamic
3) The economic
4) The genetic
5) The structural
6) The adaptive
Topographic point of view: Contrasts unconscious and conscious mental processes. The unconscious part is the deeper layer. Its sole aim is to discharge impulses. Analysis of dream is done to verify the assumptions about the latent or unconscious meaning of the symbol or the dream itself. To interpret the meaning of dream without these associations would be to impose our own thoughts onto the client – a process derogatorily called wild analysis.
The analyst will always check the possible associations to illustrate metapsychological point of view.
The dynamic point of view: suggests the tension-discharge hypothesis. It assumes that mental phenomena are the result of the interaction of psychic forces seeking discharge (similar to hydraulic systems in physics during Freud’s time). The tension-discharge hypothesis is the base of all the other assumptions, concerning instinctual drives, defenses, ego interests and conflicts.
The economic point of view: is closely related to the dynamic point of view. These two points have close connection with Freud’s idea of the psycho-economic hypothesis (Capuzzi & Gross, 2007). This hypothesis requires a construct of psychic energy, with principles of pleasure-pain and constancy. For Freud, the development of instincts necessitated conflict. When two primary instincts of sexual and aggressive drives strive toward expression, they clash with the reality principle, which leads to states of pent-up tension.
The two principles which base the concept of psychic energy are pleasure-pain principle and constancy. Principle of constancy states that the function of nervous system and the psychic apparatus is to keep the level of excitation at its lowest point. The pleasure principle is related to constancy principle. It assents the lowering level of excitation, which connotes release and relief, leads to pleasure, whereas increased excitation creates tension and description and is experienced as pain.
Genetic point of view: thinks about the origin and development of a particular psychic phenomenon. It explains how the past is being brought to the present and why a certain compromise solution has been adopted.
Structural point of view: divides the psychic apparatus into different persisting functional units – ego, id, & superego.
Adaptation point of view: thinks about the attempts done by the individual to adapt with a challenging situation. It checks about the environmental influences such as love, hate, society etc.
Goals of counseling:
Psycho analysis emphasizes,
1. Resolution of client’s problem to enhance the client’s ability to cope with life changes
2. Their working through unresolved developmental stages.
3. Their ability to cope more effectively with the demands of the society. However goals change with the client and with the psycho-analytic approach (drive theory, ego psychology, object relations, self psychology).
