Theories of Counselling: Psychoanalysis Part 2

Libido is the instinctual energy that belongs to the sexual drive. Discharge of this energy leads to pleasure. The part of the body that leads to such pleasure is called erogenous zone. The concept of erogenous zone is some more elaborated by Erikson (1963). He classified them to oral-sensory – facial apertures and upper nutritional organs, anal – excretory organs and genitalia – the genitals. Orality is a method of relating to external world (Erikson, 1963). The first mode of approach in the oral zone is incorporation-to take in, in an independent fashion, what is offered by the mother (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007).
According to Erikson (1963), functions in each zone included incorporation, retention, elimination, and intrusion. During the oral stage, Incorporation is clamping down with jaws and gums; elimination is spitting up and out; retention is closing up of lips and intrusion the tendency of the infant to fasten itself upon the nipple. Fixation during oral stages will lead the individuals to be orally dependent. The characteristics of orally dependent clients are extreme dependence to the oral elements in adult functioning and they tend to relate the world in terms of a need to be nurtured. They crave for dependency in their adulthood just as a child shows its need to be nurtured. All the above said functions will be redone by such individuals even in the adulthood. Erikson saw primary conflict at this level as one of developing the sense of basic trust vs. mistrust.
Anal stage begins with the acquisition of the control of anal sphincter by the child. The child learns to control the muscle system (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). The duality which has been seen during this period is rigidity vs. relaxation, flexion vs. extension. The child during this period delineates his world as I, you, me and mine. General actions will be reaching out, holding on, throw/push away – to appropriate things/to keep them in distance. They are able to make a decision and to carry over that decision. Erikson saw primary conflict at this level as autonomy vs. shame and doubt – therefore the process of letting go and holding down. According to Freud, fixations my stem out from these conflicts lead to two sets of anal traits – anal retentive and anal expulsive traits. Anal retentive traits involve excessive use of self-control. They include perfectionism, a strong need for order, and exaggerated neatness and cleanliness. Anal-expulsive traits, on the other hand, “let it all hang out”. They include carelessness, messiness and even sadism (Rathus, 1996).
During phallic stage, the child will be moved from a 2 person interaction – Mother-child interaction – to a triangular relationship – mother-child-father. The child will wish to possess or to be possessed by the parents of the opposite sex. This creates a conflict with the thought of the parent of same sex. Here incestuous feelings are combined with patricidal impulses. The boy wishes to possess his mother. The boy fears father’s revenge of castration – castration anxiety. The girl wishes to be possessed by her father. The girl feels jealous of the penis: penis envy. This complex is necessary for later development. The threat of castration leads the child to internalize. Here super-ego starts to develop.
Post Freudian psychoanalysis involves a variety of technique. One of them is based on the object relations theory. According to object relations theory, object seeking is the nature of motivation. Post Freudians did not discard drive theory (of Freud), but contributed to it the significance of interaction with important others in the formation of personality. Some of the most popular Post Freudian contributors are Melain Klein, Donald Winnicott and Heinz Kohut. Among these Kohut (1977) developed the theory called self psychology. Self psychology suggests that self is an organized construct of experience (not innate drives and instincts).
Overall, Post-Freudian theorists expanded psychoanalysis theory from Freud’s one person system to a two person system. They, more than considering an individual as a closed system, the scope widened to include another person (the analyst). According to Freud, psychoanalytic treatment is similar to what a surgeon do. Just as a surgeon removes a tumor, a psychoanalyst removes the repressed memory from the unconscious. Freud conceived the analyst as a mirror (non-reactive, non-contributory), which reflects back the unconscious desires and fears emanating from the client. On the other hand, object relation psychoanalysts suggests this relationship as just like that of a mother and a child. By the entry of Neo-Freudians, there occurred a paradigm shift in psychoanalysis (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). Terms such as inter-subjectivity theory, relational theorizing and social constructivism indicates this shift is from the positivistic belief that there are ultimate truths to be found within the intra-psychic structure of the individual (Robin, 1995).
According to Freud, an analyst is an archeologist shifting through strange symbols (dreams, slips of the tongue, symptoms). He will decipher meanings and present them to the client via an interpretation. But, for the neo-Freudians, the role of an analyst is different. In their opinion, the analyst and patient together create or construct what is clinically useful (Robin, 1995). This shift has influenced even the concept of counter transference (Capuzzi and Gross, 2007). Freud viewed counter transference as a reaction that contaminates therapy. According to Freud, it is a function of unrecognized neurotic conflicts within the analyst.
The system of psychoanalytic theory rests on meta-psychology (Rapaport & Gill, 1959). To comprehend a psychic event thoroughly, it is necessary to analyze it from six different points of view.
1) The topographic
2) The dynamic
3) The economic
4) The genetic
5) The structural
6) The adaptive
Topographic point of view: Contrasts unconscious and conscious mental processes. The unconscious part is the deeper layer. Its sole aim is to discharge impulses. Analysis of dream is done to verify the assumptions about the latent or unconscious meaning of the symbol or the dream itself. To interpret the meaning of dream without these associations would be to impose our own thoughts onto the client – a process derogatorily called wild analysis.
The analyst will always check the possible associations to illustrate metapsychological point of view.
The dynamic point of view: suggests the tension-discharge hypothesis. It assumes that mental phenomena are the result of the interaction of psychic forces seeking discharge (similar to hydraulic systems in physics during Freud’s time). The tension-discharge hypothesis is the base of all the other assumptions, concerning instinctual drives, defenses, ego interests and conflicts.
The economic point of view: is closely related to the dynamic point of view. These two points have close connection with Freud’s idea of the psycho-economic hypothesis (Capuzzi & Gross, 2007). This hypothesis requires a construct of psychic energy, with principles of pleasure-pain and constancy. For Freud, the development of instincts necessitated conflict. When two primary instincts of sexual and aggressive drives strive toward expression, they clash with the reality principle, which leads to states of pent-up tension.
The two principles which base the concept of psychic energy are pleasure-pain principle and constancy. Principle of constancy states that the function of nervous system and the psychic apparatus is to keep the level of excitation at its lowest point. The pleasure principle is related to constancy principle. It assents the lowering level of excitation, which connotes release and relief, leads to pleasure, whereas increased excitation creates tension and description and is experienced as pain.
Genetic point of view: thinks about the origin and development of a particular psychic phenomenon. It explains how the past is being brought to the present and why a certain compromise solution has been adopted.
Structural point of view: divides the psychic apparatus into different persisting functional units – ego, id, & superego.
Adaptation point of view: thinks about the attempts done by the individual to adapt with a challenging situation. It checks about the environmental influences such as love, hate, society etc.
Goals of counseling:
Psycho analysis emphasizes,
1. Resolution of client’s problem to enhance the client’s ability to cope with life changes
2. Their working through unresolved developmental stages.
3. Their ability to cope more effectively with the demands of the society. However goals change with the client and with the psycho-analytic approach (drive theory, ego psychology, object relations, self psychology).

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF COUNSELLING: PART ONE

Psychodynamic counselling is a model that uses psychoanalytic concepts to explain human growth and development, and the nature of psychological problems. The roots of psychodynamic or psychoanalytic approach belong to the psychoanalytic theory introduced by Sigmund Freud, who broadened the field of Psychology and gave it a new exciting look (Gibson & Mitchell, 2003). The term psychodynamic means 'pertaining to the laws of mental action'. It indicates that there are some principles that determine the relationship between mind and action.
According to Freud, human mind is like a vast submerged iceberg. What is there in the conscious awareness is just the tip of this iceberg above the sea level. Psychoanalytic theory hypothesized that human mind has three parts: conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious. The conscious part of the mind includes everything we are aware of at a given moment, including thoughts, perceptions, feelings and memories (Coon, 1992). It is the region that pokes through in to the light of awareness (Rathus, 1996). The preconscious contains elements of experiences that are presently unaware, but that can be easily brought to awareness. The unconscious mind is shrouded in mystery. It contains biological instincts such as sex and aggression (Rathus, 1996). Some unconscious urges cannot be experienced consciously, because mental images and words could not portray them in all their colour and fury. Other unconscious urges may be kept below the surface by repression (Rathus, 1996).
According to psychoanalytic theory, personality is divided into three major systems – the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is innate in human beings since birth. Id follows pleasure principle. It provides the drive for the pursuit of personal wants (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). Ego is the rational element, which has contact with the world of reality. Ego follows reality principle. It controls our consciousness and provides realistic and logical thinking. It will also moderate the desires of id (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). Superego represents the conscience of the mind. Superego follows morality principle. It is in super-ego, pride, self love, punishments and feeling of guilt or inferiority existed (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003).
Superego is always aware of the impulses of the id because both of these exist in the unconscious part of the mind. Superego will direct ego to control id (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). Controlling id means, controlling the basic instincts of pleasure seeking. The basic instincts in human beings, according to Freud, are life instinct and death instinct. Life instinct is expressed through sex and death instinct is expressed through aggression. When these basic instincts are brought under control, the consequences are tension, conflict and anxiety. Human behavior is inevitably directed towards the reduction of this tension (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003).
Current psychodynamic counselling draws from a much wider range of theoretical influences. The theory suggests that we are unaware of many of our motives and that if these are known to us we are able to make better, less conflicted choices. However we are often resistant to or defended against recognition these hidden motives. By the arrival of neo-freudians, like Anna Freud, Erich Fromme, Karen Hornye etc. the mechanisms used to defend the unconscious motives were theoretically expanded.
Defense mechanisms help the individuals to reduce tensions, adapting to the situations. For the most part, these are normal and operate at an unconscious level. According to the psychodynamic theory, defense mechanism is an unconscious function of the ego that protects it from anxiety-evoking material by preventing accurate recognition of this material (Rathus, 1996). Some of the defense mechanisms are repression, rationalization, regression, identification, displacement, overcompensation, projection, introjection. People who overuse defense mechanisms become less adaptable, because they consume great amounts of emotional energy to control anxiety and to maintain an unrealistic self-image (Coon, 1999).
Repression is the automatic ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from awareness (Rathus, 1996). It is viewed as the basic defense mechanism (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). People used to repress ugly childhood experiences (Myers & Brewin, 1994). Repression is the defense mechanism that protects us from perceiving morally unacceptable impulses (Rathus, 1996). We protect ourselves by repressing thoughts or impulses that are painful and threatening. Feelings of hostility toward a loved one, the names of disliked people, and past failures and embarrassments are common targets of repression (Coon, 1999).
Regression is characterized by the return, under stress, to a form of behaviour of an earlier stage of development (Rathus, 1996). Most parents who have a second child have to put up with at least some regression by the older child. Threatened by a new rival for attention, an older child may regress to childish speech, bed-wetting, or infantile play after the new baby arrives (Coon, 1999). An adult who throws a temper tantrum or a married adult who “goes home to mother”, after arguments with the spouse are examples of regression.
Rationalization is the use of self-deceiving justifications for unacceptable behaviour (Rathus, 1996). For example, anyone who cheats on giving income tax will say ‘everyone does it.’ Rationalization provides us with reasons for behaviour we ourselves find somewhat questionable.
Displacement is the transfer of ideas and impulses from threatening of unsuitable objects to less threatening objects (Rathus, 1996). For example, a worker picks a fight with spouse after criticized sharply by the supervisor.
Projection is the thrusting of one’s own unacceptable impulses on to others so that others are assumed to harbor them (Rathus, 1996). Example is the perception of a hostile person that the world is a dangerous place. Projection is an unconscious process that protects us from the anxiety that would occur if we were to discern our own faults or unacceptable traits. A person who is projecting tends to see his or her own shortcomings or unacceptable impulses in others. Projection lowers anxiety by exaggerating negative traits in others while directing attention away from one’s own failures.
Reaction formation is a defense in which impulses are not only repressed, but are also held in check by exaggerated opposite behaviour. The basic ides in reaction formation is that the individual acts out an opposite behaviour to block threatening impulses or feeling. For example, a mother who unconsciously resents her children may, through reaction formation, become absurdly overprotective and overindulgent. Her real thoughts of “I hate them” and “I wish they were gone” are replaced by “I love them” and “I don’t know what I would do without them”.
Denial is the refusal to accept the true nature of a threat (Rathus, 1996). If a person who smokes heavily thinks ‘cancer can never happen to me’, it is denial. Denial is one of the most basic defense mechanisms. It protects the individual from an unpleasant reality by refusing to accept it or believe it (Coon, 1999).

Sublimation is the channeling of primitive impulses into positive, constructive efforts (Rathus, 1996). If a hostile person becomes a tennis star, it is sublimation. Freud believed that art, music, dance, poetry, scientific investigation, and other creative activities can serve to re-channel sexual energies into productive behaviour. Freud also felt that almost any strong desire can be sublimated. Greed may be refined into a successful business career. Lying may be sublimated into storytelling, creative writing, or politics (Coon, 1999).

References:

Coon, D., (1999). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application. West Publishing Company, NY.

Gibson, R. L. & Mitchell, M. H. (2003). Introduction to Counselling and Guidance. Pearson Education, Inc.

Myers, L. B., & Brewin, C. R. (1994). Recall of Early Experience and the Repressive Coping Style. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 288-292.

Rathus, S. A., (1996). Psychology in the New Millenium. Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Counselling in India

According to Rao (1981), counselling is not a novel institution in Indian context. In his opinion, Bhagavat Gita presents the first counsellor, Lord Krishna, and it provides counselling for all the ages and all the times. However, this idea can be questioned because in the process of counselling, theoretically, it is the counselee who will talk more and not the counsellor. In the case of Gita, Krishna gives advices to Arjuna (or for all ages and all the times). Arjuna is merely a listener. However, these advices had the power to bring changes in the views of Arjuna. It could also bring changes in Arjuna’s behavior. Therefore, we can say that the advice given by Krishna in Gita contained the power that could bring the effect of counselling.
In ancient India, the system of education existed in the form of Gurukula (Rao, 1981). During those times, pupil had the choice or freedom to seek his own Guru or teacher (Rao, 1981). It has to be noted that all those who liked to learn did not get the opportunity for it during those days. Even in Mahabharatha, evidences of racial discriminations in the case of acquiring education can be seen. Thus, realization of knowledge from Gurukula system was limited in a privileged class. One cannot imagine that all the Indians equally shared liberty and equality during those days. However, these traditional aspects present ideas and constructs that are rich in possibilities for application in Indian cultural setting. Therefore, the fact that psychological thought is not new to India, is true.
Counselling needs in the Indian context emerged against the background of tremendous social change. In addition, the last ten years of economic reform have enhanced the pace of these changes and further transformed life styles. Counselling services are poorly defined and presently anyone at all with little or no training can offer these services. Available counselling services are largely based on Western approaches to psychology. These approaches have been widely criticised as not being relevant to the Indian cultural context (Rao, 1981). A relevant and culturally valid counselling psychology therefore has remained a hatchling discipline.
The roots of couselling in India belong to Mysore University, where the first chair in psychology was endowed. After this, within a year, Calcutta University started a department of Psychology. During the mid 1940s, Patna University started a department of Psychology, closely followed by Banaras Hindu University, the Lucknow University etc. Currently, the major is included in a lot of state as well as central universities in India.
Along with this, Applied Psychology emerged as an independent department of the existing departments of Psychology. In Calcutta University, a section of Applied Psychology started in 1938, and in 1945, department of Psychological services was established at Patna University.
Establishment of Vocational Guidance Bureau by the trustees of the Parsi Panchayath, a voluntary organization in Bombay, was a major step in the case of emergence of guidance in India. The bureau was primarily meant to help the youth of the Parsi community. However, the bureau was closed out of financial burden during 1950s, but restarted in 1960s.
Another far-reaching step was the appointment of Acharya Narendra Dev Committee by Government of Uttar Pradesh to examine the issue of providing guidance at schools. Following this, realizing the importance of vocational and educational guidance to school going people, Uttar Pradesh Government established a Bureau of Psychology in Allahabad. Dr. C.M.Bhatia, a renowned psychologist and author of Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests, was appointed as its first Director. Soon after this, five more regional bureaus – Varanasi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Meerut and Bareilly – were established at Uttar Pradesh.
After about one decade, the Government of Bombay opened a vocational guidance bureau, which was later renamed as Institute of Vocational Guidance. It was during this time the first professional journal, “Journal of Counselling Psychology” was released. Following this, all India Vocational Guidance Association was organized and a decision was taken to start a journal. The journal had its first issue in 1956.
In 1954, the Government of India set up the Central bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance in New Delhi. By 1955, 11 state bureaus were established. In 1958, M.S.University, Baroda, began counselling services and appointed a full-time counsellor.
Even though Governmental agencies as well as non-government organizations have come forward to the field of counselling, it is still on the process of emergence. Organized work and provision of professional services are still lacking. Another great challenge is that unqualified personnel and quacks have made the field doubtful to the public. Moreover, people seem to be confused with the terms counselling and guidance as well as with the ideas behind counselling and advice.

An orientation regarding difference between student personnel services and counselling may help to rectify the doubts of the people. Counselling is psychotherapeutic assistance, which requires academic preparation, professional training and supervised internship (Rao, 1981). Currently, the courses provided by the universities have started to maintain all these standards. But, professionals are yet to be hatched out to fulfill the needs of the society. Moreover, legislation for the certification of these professionals is yet to be formulated.